1st Place Essay
Is the human Y-chromosome vanishing in the future?
Penelope Hobbs, Astrid Edmunds
Wellington College, Crowthorne, United Kingdom
Throughout the last 180 million years since the human X and Y chromosomes evolved from a pair of autosomes, the Y chromosome has undergone significant genetic decay [1]. In this manner, the security of the future of the Y chromosome has been called into question by todays scientists, who have uncovered a plethora of evidence both supporting and opposing the claim that the human Y-chromosome may disappear over the next 4.6 million years. Alongside the investigation of this scientific inquiry, artificial intelligence has become progressively present in both scientific discovery and every-day life. As such, not only will the persistence of the human Y-chromosome be called into question in this short essay, but also the accuracy of artificial intelligence. Chat GPT claims that ‘over evolutionary time, the Y-chromosome has lost numerous genes, and its gene pool had diminished significantly.’ This is confirmed through scientific investigation. It has been claimed that the Y-chromosome has lost 97% of its ancestral genes [1]. Furthermore, it has been said that the Y-chromosome’s ability to recombine with the much larger X-chromosome has been reduced by a number of ‘stratification’ events, resulting in the Y-chromosome having further limited ways to correct mutations. It has also been claimed that not only do Y-chromosomes lack the ability to recombine the way X-chromosomes do, but that they are also subjected to increased numbers of mutations, which can build up at an accelerated rate [2]. Due to the fact that males are in a constant state of sperm production, cells in their testes are continuously dividing, opening doorways for mutations to occur upon every division [2]. Despite this, the Y-chromosome does have some functions to allow it to combat this build-up of harmful mutations. ‘Chat-GPT’ claims that ‘the Y-chromosome is resilient and that mechanisms such as gene conversion and natural selection act to maintain its stability’. This is furthered by Jenn Hughes, who states that the Y chromosome has ‘shown that it can outsmart genetic decay’, noting that it has ‘added at least eight different genes,’[3]. This emphasises the concept that the Y-chromosome is overcoming the challenges it is facing and developing ways to not only combat the growing number of mutations but thrive in the conditions it is facing. Similarly, it has been said that the Y-chromosome has ‘large recurrent inversions’ at over two times the rate of that anywhere else in the human genome [4]. This means that the genetic sequence is a palindrome, allowing the Y-chromosome to correct mutations when they occur by taking the other half of the gene and flipping it, replacing the mutated section [2]. A strong piece of evidence that ‘Chat GPT’ did not mention in favour of the disappearance of the Y chromosome is the existence of the Amami spiny rat. Over time, these rats’ Y-chromosome has undergone such significant degradation that it has ceased to exist [2]. As such, both males and females have one X-chromosome. Despite this, there is still a clear separation in anatomy between male and female rats. Upon analysis, scientist Asato Kuroiwa identified a duplication of the SOX9 gene in the male rats that wasn’t present in the female rats. This SOX9 gene is a gene that the SRY region previously activated to cause the masculinisation of the embryo. Because of the duplication of this gene, the activity of the gene is boosted, meaning it has the same effect as the SRY region had. Therefore, instead of sex being determined by which chromosomes the rat inherits, it became decided by whether the rat inherited a copy of chromosome 3 with the duplication (male) or without (female) [2]. This proves that a species can thrive without the need for a Y-chromosome, and that the Y-chromosome can be replaced by alternate means. In conclusion, it could be stated that ‘Chat GPT’ did not form a strong conclusion, alluding to the fact that no solid opinion could be formed without further scientific research and knowledge. Throughout it’s essay, it mentioned key topics but failed to go into detail, or develop a main concept. Additionally, it showed a limited ability to complete evidence-based analysis, tending to generalise important topics without giving supporting statements and evidence. Therefore, it seems reasonable to conclude that while artificial intelligence can be helpful to gain a brief understanding topics, it does not give information to an acceptable degree for scientific discovery, and therefore should not be used as a sole source to learn about any topic.
Introduction: The human Y-chromosome, a crucial component in determining male sex, has long been a subject of scientific fascination and speculation. Recent studies and advancements in genetics have ignited a debate on whether the human Y-chromosome is vanishing in the future. While some researchers argue that its degradation is inevitable, others contend that the Y-chromosome’s persistence is crucial for the survival of the human species. Body: One perspective suggesting the potential vanishing of the Y-chromosome emphasizes the phenomenon of Y-chromosome degeneration. Over evolutionary time, the Y-chromosome has lost numerous genes, and its gene pool has diminished significantly. Some scientists argue that this degeneration might eventually render the Y-chromosome obsolete, leading to a point where it may cease to exist altogether. The process of Y-chromosome decay, however, has been ongoing for millions of years, and the pace of degradation is a subject of scientific investigation. On the contrary, an opposing viewpoint posits that the Y-chromosome is far from disappearing. Proponents of this perspective argue that the Y-chromosome is resilient and that mechanisms such as gene conversion and natural selection act to maintain its stability. They highlight the essential role of the Y-chromosome in determining male sex and its significance in the reproduction of sexually reproducing species. Recent research in genetics has unveiled intriguing findings, challenging the notion of the Y-chromosome’s demise. Studies have identified genes on the Y-chromosome that play crucial roles in various physiological processes, beyond just determining male sex. These findings suggest that the Y-chromosome might have functions that extend beyond its stereotypical role, potentially contributing to the overall health and adaptability of the human species. Conclusion: In conclusion, the fate of the human Y-chromosome remains a topic of active research and debate. While some predict its eventual disappearance due to ongoing degeneration, others argue for its resilience and essential role in human evolution. As our understanding of genetics deepens, future discoveries will likely shed more light on the fate of the Y-chromosome, unraveling the mysteries surrounding its existence and influence on the future of the human species.
[1] Jason Wilson, Joshua M. Staley & Gerald J. Wyckoff: Extinction of chromosomes due to specialization is a universal occurrence [online] Available at <https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-58997-2> [Accessed 02/01/2024] [2] Kat Arney: Why Y bye-bye? Is the Y chromosome disappearing and will men really go extinct? [online] Available at < https://geneticsunzipped.com/transcripts/2023/03/23/bye-bye-y> [Accessed 02/01/2024] [3] Darren K. Griffin: Is the Y chromosome disappearing? — both sides of the argument [online] Available at < https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22083302/> [Accesses 03/01/2024] [4] P. Hallast, M.K. Konkel, C. Lee et al. Assembly of 43 human Y chromosomes reveals extensive complexity and variation. [online] Available at < https://www.sanger.ac.uk/news_item/diversity-of-human-y-chromosome-revealed/> [Accessed 02/01/2024]
2nd Place Essay
Disappearance of the human Y chromosome
Sinan Bezcioglu, SELVARE SAĞLAMDEMİR GÃNCAY
TÃrkiye, Istanbul, Turkey
The following essay is about the topic “Is the human Y-chromosome vanishing in the future?”. I used ChatGPT’s GPT-3 model as my choice to write a 350 word essay about the topic to analyse both sources from the Internet and AI to see which sources should we trust. “The human Y-chromosome has been a subject of fascination and concern in scientific circles regarding its potential disappearance in the future. This chromosome plays a crucial role in determining male sex characteristics and is passed down from father to son. However, recent studies and debates have emerged suggesting that the Y-chromosome may be shrinking over time, raising questions about its long-term viability.One of the primary reasons behind the speculation about the vanishing Y-chromosome is its evolutionary history. Unlike other chromosomes, the Y-chromosome has a unique and relatively small size, containing fewer genes compared to its counterpart, the X-chromosome. This size difference makes the Y-chromosome more susceptible to mutations and genetic decay. Over millions of years, the Y-chromosome has undergone significant changes, losing genes and genetic material through a process known as degeneration.Moreover, the Y-chromosome faces additional challenges due to its exclusive transmission from father to son. Unlike other chromosomes that undergo genetic recombination during meiosis, the Y-chromosome largely avoids recombination, leading to a lack of genetic diversity and a reduced ability to repair mutations. This limited genetic exchange could accelerate the loss of functional genes on the Y-chromosome over successive generations.However, recent research has provided some insights that challenge the notion of the Y-chromosome’s impending demise. Studies have revealed that the Y-chromosome has mechanisms to counteract gene loss and maintain its essential functions. It can acquire genes from other chromosomes through a process called gene conversion, which helps in preserving genetic diversity and preventing further degeneration.Furthermore, advances in genomic sequencing have allowed scientists to study the Y-chromosome in greater detail, uncovering previously unknown genes and functions. This deeper understanding of the Y-chromosome’s biology has led to more optimistic projections about its evolutionary trajectory.In conclusion, while the human Y-chromosome may be undergoing evolutionary changes and facing challenges due to its unique characteristics, the idea of its complete disappearance in the future remains speculative. Ongoing research and advancements in genetics will continue to shed light on the dynamics of the Y-chromosome’s evolution and its long-term prospects.”The first 2 paragraphs of the AI essay discusses the evolutionary side of the human Y chromosome degradation and has got it right. According to The Conversation, sex chromosomes commonly degrade over time. The acquisition of a gene determining sex is detrimental to a chromosome, as neighboring genes on the Y chromosome evolve male-specific functions, kept together by suppressing exchange with the X. Consequently, the Y chromosome struggles to rectify mutations, deletions, or faulty DNA due to its inability to swap genetic material with the X chromosome. Moreover, the Y chromosome faces challenges as it resides in the testes every generation, where cells undergo frequent divisions to produce sperm, leading to increased mutation rates.
The AI also got paragraphs 3 and 4 right. The human Y chromosome, barring its pseudo-autosomal regions, no longer recombines with the X chromosome. Instead, its gene content forms the male-specific region (MSY). Recombination suppression, likely due to inversions, integrated segments into the MSY, initiating gene loss processes. Evolutionary strata exhibit progressive degeneration correlating with the age of X-Y gene pairs. The oldest stratum retains only four genes, notably including the sex-determining factor SRY. While extinction within 5 million years is proposed, research suggests stable gene assortment through purifying selection and gene conversion for the past 25 million years. Despite debates, the Y chromosome’s unique functional specialisation and gene retention likely influenced its degeneration.However, the AI has failed to mention the negative effects of the loss of the Y chromosome such as Alzheimer’s, cancer and cardiovascular disease based on a review, published by the National Library of Medicine.In conclusion, AI is the perfect tool to get basic and short information. However, we have to consider that the AI can also get some things wrong since it scans the internet to obtain information and the internet isn’t entirely made out of truthful information. Sources: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22083302/ https://www.deseret.com/2024/2/26/24083919/y-chromosome-disappearing https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-58997-2 https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.286.5441.964 https://www.latrobe.edu.au/news/articles/2022/opinion/men-are-slowly-losing-their-y-chromosome chat.openai.com
The human Y-chromosome has been a subject of fascination and concern in scientific circles regarding its potential disappearance in the future. This chromosome plays a crucial role in determining male sex characteristics and is passed down from father to son. However, recent studies and debates have emerged suggesting that the Y-chromosome may be shrinking over time, raising questions about its long-term viability.One of the primary reasons behind the speculation about the vanishing Y-chromosome is its evolutionary history. Unlike other chromosomes, the Y-chromosome has a unique and relatively small size, containing fewer genes compared to its counterpart, the X-chromosome. This size difference makes the Y-chromosome more susceptible to mutations and genetic decay. Over millions of years, the Y-chromosome has undergone significant changes, losing genes and genetic material through a process known as degeneration.Moreover, the Y-chromosome faces additional challenges due to its exclusive transmission from father to son. Unlike other chromosomes that undergo genetic recombination during meiosis, the Y-chromosome largely avoids recombination, leading to a lack of genetic diversity and a reduced ability to repair mutations. This limited genetic exchange could accelerate the loss of functional genes on the Y-chromosome over successive generations.However, recent research has provided some insights that challenge the notion of the Y-chromosome’s impending demise. Studies have revealed that the Y-chromosome has mechanisms to counteract gene loss and maintain its essential functions. It can acquire genes from other chromosomes through a process called gene conversion, which helps in preserving genetic diversity and preventing further degeneration.Furthermore, advances in genomic sequencing have allowed scientists to study the Y-chromosome in greater detail, uncovering previously unknown genes and functions. This deeper understanding of the Y-chromosome’s biology has led to more optimistic projections about its evolutionary trajectory.In conclusion, while the human Y-chromosome may be undergoing evolutionary changes and facing challenges due to its unique characteristics, the idea of its complete disappearance in the future remains speculative. Ongoing research and advancements in genetics will continue to shed light on the dynamics of the Y-chromosome’s evolution and its long-term prospects.
Sources: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22083302/ https://www.deseret.com/2024/2/26/24083919/y-chromosome-disappearing https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-58997-2 https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.286.5441.964 https://www.latrobe.edu.au/news/articles/2022/opinion/men-are-slowly-losing-their-y-chromosome chat.openai.com
3rd Place Essay
The Disappearing Chromosome: Panic and Composure
Giovanni Elvina Suthiana
Global Sevilla Pulo Mas, East Jakarta, Indonesia
In this essay, the word ‘men’ will refer to people with Y chromosomes.
Throughout the modern world, artificial intelligence has developed immensely and has been used by many as a viable and trustworthy source of information. ChatGPT’s essay on the future of the Y-chromosome provides captivating responses on the possible disappearance of the Y-chromosome. The essay suggests that researchers have predicted the shrinking and disappearance of the Y-chromosome. However, it is acknowledged that the Y-chromosome undergoes processes such as gene conversion and natural selection to combat the impacts of mutation and loss. The continuity of male fertility also depends on the survival of the Y-chromosome, therefore, it is important to hold selective standards. Moreover, the improvement of genetic engineering and reproductive technologies helps sustain the Y chromosome. The contents of this essay, if believed to be true, would catalyse an impact on the public, both socially and scientifically.
Socially, the importance of the Y-chromosome would be acknowledged due to traditions, history, and what society considers ‘normal’. For example, war has majorly been considered a male activity, both in the ancient and modern world [1]. Traditionally, men have also been seen to be ‘protectors’ of women and children and provide them with security [2]. Our attachment to this ‘normal’ can be hard to let go of as historically, this is what has always been. Therefore, the possible disappearance of the Y-chromosome potentiates a major disturbance in the public’s emotions. The feeling of ‘needing’ men would encourage and pressure the further development of genetic engineering and reproductive technologies, to ensure the ‘normal’ we know now. For example, genetic engineering using Cas9 and other drive components on the Y-chromosome has been explored, which may induce sex selection [3]. Methods such as this would be considered to maintain the survival of the Y-chromosome.
Scientifically, the question ensues, do we need the Y-chromosome to ensure the survival of the human race? There may be two considerations when answering; the importance of the Y-chromosome in the past, and the importance of the Y-chromosome in the future. The general belief of requiring men as ‘protectors’ or ‘hunters’, especially in the past, have many times been questioned. For example, It is found that across 63 foraging societies throughout the globe, 79% of them had proof of women being hunters [4]. As for the future, research on reproduction without the Y-chromosome will be executed, and as long as it is possible, Y-chromosome disappearance should not be a problem. Research into the possibility of reproducing without a sperm has been done. For example, Monash University’s Institute of Reproduction and Development in Melbourne adapted cloning technology and did somatic cell transfer in mice. As somatic cells are diploid, they will discard one set of chromosomes as it fuses with an oocyte, which creates a fertilised egg with two sets of chromosomes. Following fertilisation, electric shock stimulation will cause the egg to divide [5]. Furthermore, it will be necessary to figure out if the Y chromosome is disappearing or simply evolving. As the A.I. essay highlights the Y-chromosome’s innate ability to combat mutation and loss, research into understanding the likely evolution of the Y-chromosome would be deliberated. Current theoretical studies, which model evolutionary forces on the Y
chromosome, have predicted that the Y chromosome would not disappear. This is concluded by considering that fewer active genes have caused gene loss. This engenders mutations which delete nonfunctional genes, and cause degeneration. However, fewer non-functional genes will be present hence, fewer mutations will eventually occur, causing very slow gene loss. Observations in the Drosophila species and primates further provide evidence against the disappearance of the Y chromosome [6]. Therefore, the problem of the disappearing Y chromosome may simply be an overreaction to the chromosome’s evolution, and even if not, maintaining the Y chromosome may not be necessary.
Society plays a major role in the social and scientific views of encountering a problem. When considering the problem of the disappearing Y-chromosome according to the A.I. essay, society’s first reaction can be to do everything possible to save what has been for centuries. However, a deeper look can bring about new considerations. Firstly, this problem may have never existed in the first place, and if this problem were true, it may not hinder the progress of the human race, in other words, it will not matter. Hence, the A.I. essay can initiate two different emotions; panic and composure.
As the chromosome responsible for male sex determination and fertility, the Y-chromosome plays a crucial role in shaping the genetic diversity of human populations. However, concerns about its potential demise have led to debates and investigations into the future of this unique genetic component. One of the primary reasons for the speculation surrounding the fate of the Y-chromosome is its distinct evolutionary trajectory. Unlike other chromosomes, the Y-chromosome does not undergo regular recombination with its counterpart, the X-chromosome, during meiosis. This lack of recombination can lead to the accumulation of mutations and the loss of genetic material over time, a process known as degeneration. As a result, some researchers have hypothesized that the Y-chromosome is gradually shrinking and may eventually vanish altogether. Evidence supporting the idea of Y-chromosome degeneration comes from studies comparing the Y-chromosomes of different species and analyzing the patterns of genetic variation within human populations. These studies have revealed a trend of Y-chromosome loss across evolutionary time, with the human Y-chromosome being smaller and less genetically diverse than its counterparts in other species. However, it is important to note that the story of the Y-chromosome is not one of inevitable decline. While degeneration may be occurring, the Y-chromosome also undergoes processes such as gene conversion and natural selection, which can counteract the effects of mutation and loss. Furthermore, the Y-chromosome carries genes that are essential for male fertility, suggesting that strong selective pressures exist to maintain its integrity. Advancements in genetic engineering and reproductive technologies also offer potential avenues for preserving the Y-chromosome. Techniques such as sperm sorting and assisted reproductive technologies may allow researchers to select for sperm carrying intact Y-chromosomes, thereby mitigating the effects of degeneration. In conclusion, while the future of the human Y-chromosome remains uncertain, it is unlikely to vanish entirely in the foreseeable future. Ongoing research and technological developments continue to provide insights into the evolutionary dynamics of the Y-chromosome and offer hope for its preservation. By understanding the forces shaping the fate of the Y-chromosome, we can better appreciate the complex interplay between genetics, evolution, and human biology.
- Micheletti, A. J. C., Ruxton, G. D., and Gardner, A. (2018). Why war is a man’s game. Proceedings. Biological sciences, 285(1884), 20180975. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2018.0975
- Wojnicka, K. (2021). Men and masculinities in times of crisis: Between care and protection. NORMA, 16(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1080/18902138.2021.1885860
- Gamez, S., Chaverra-Rodriguez, D., Buchman, A., Kandul, N. P., Mendez-Sanchez, S. C., Bennett, J. B., Sánchez C, H. M., Yang, T., Antoshechkin, I., Duque, J. E., Papathanos, P. A., Marshall, J. M., and Akbari, O. S. (2021). Exploiting a Y chromosome-linked Cas9 for sex selection and gene drive. Nature communications, 12(1), 7202. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-27333-1
- Anderson A, Chilczuk S, Nelson K, Ruther R, Wall-Scheffler C (2023) The Myth of Man the Hunter: Women’s contribution to the hunt across ethnographic contexts. PLOS ONE 18(6): e0287101. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287101
- Josefson D. (2001). Scientists fertilise mouse eggs without sperm. BMJ (Clinical research ed.), 323(7305), 127. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.323.7305.127
- Bachtrog D. (2013). Y-chromosome evolution: emerging insights into processes of Y-chromosome degeneration. Nature reviews. Genetics, 14(2), 113-124. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg3366
3rd Place Essay
Unraveling the Future of the Human Y-Chromosome: Evolutionary Trends and Genetic Dynamics
Doga Sele, Esra Ebrisim
MBA Okullari, Istanbul, Turkey
The human Y-chromosome, a pivotal determinant of sex and fertility, has engrossed scientists for numerous decades, sparking fervent debates regarding its evolutionary trajectory. Over the years, diverse studies have posited varying perspectives on the fate of the Y-chromosome, with some suggesting a gradual decline that has led to speculations about its potential disappearance. Despite these conjectures, the subject remains a contentious topic within the scientific community. In this extensive review, we embark on a meticulous exploration of the scientific evidence surrounding the future of the human Y-chromosome, delving deeply into its evolutionary patterns and recent advancements in genetics and reproductive technologies. As one of the two sex chromosomes in humans, the Y-chromosome holds substantial sway over male characteristics and reproductive functions. Nevertheless, it diverges from its counterpart, the X-chromosome, by lacking recombination partners during meiosis, rendering it prone to genetic decay. This compromised genetic repair capacity, coupled with its reduced size, amplifies its vulnerability. Research investigating the evolutionary dynamics of the Y-chromosome unveils a complex interplay of gene loss, decay, and diminishing genetic diversity extending across millions of years. The absence of recombination, alongside the accrual of detrimental mutations, stands as the primary catalyst behind this degenerative process. However, forecasting future trends necessitates a nuanced evaluation of additional factors that could potentially shape the evolutionary course of the Y-chromosome. Despite indications of degeneration, the Y-chromosome demonstrates resilience through adaptive mechanisms aimed at counteracting genetic erosion. Recent genomic inquiries have brought to light instances of gene acquisition, innovation, and the assimilation of functional elements, challenging the predominant narrative of irreversible decline. These revelations hint at robust mechanisms fortifying the Y-chromosome’s endurance and evolutionary adaptability. The pivotal role of natural selection emerges in sculpting the trajectory of the Y-chromosome. Genes crucial for male fertility undergo rigorous positive selection, ensuring their perpetuation and functionality across successive generations. Additionally, gene conversion—a process facilitating genetic material exchange between the Y-chromosome and homologous regions on the X-chromosome—emerges as a critical mechanism preserving the integrity of the Y-chromosome. The emergence of state-of-the-art genomic technologies and reproductive interventions signifies a new chapter in unraveling the intricacies of the Y-chromosome and its implications for human biology. High-throughput sequencing methods unravel the complexities of Y-chromosome variation among diverse populations, offering valuable insights into its evolutionary landscape and genetic diversity. Reproductive technologies, such as assisted reproductive techniques (ART), present promising avenues for addressing concerns related to Y-chromosome evolution. For instance, intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) circumvents fertility challenges posed by Y-chromosome abnormalities, underscoring the synergistic relationship between genetics and reproductive medicine. The future of the human Y-chromosome bears profound implications for human health, reproduction, and evolutionary biology. While the complete disappearance of the Y-chromosome appears implausible given its indispensable role in male biology, ongoing research remains crucial for deciphering its evolutionary trajectories and repercussions for humanity. Unraveling the evolutionary dynamics of the Y-chromosome carries significant implications for elucidating the genetic underpinnings of male infertility and reproductive disorders. Furthermore, insights gleaned from Y-chromosome evolution illuminate human evolutionary history, population genetics, and the complexities of sex determination and sexual dimorphism. In conclusion, the destiny of the human Y-chromosome encapsulates a multifaceted narrative intertwining evolutionary patterns, genetic complexities, and technological breakthroughs. While caution is warranted in light of signs of degeneration, recent discoveries challenge bleak projections, highlighting the resilience and adaptability of the Y-chromosome in the face of evolutionary pressures.
The future trajectory of the human Y-chromosome is a subject of scientific inquiry, sparking discussions about its potential fate. Research has suggested that the Y-chromosome, essential for male sex determination and fertility, may be undergoing a process of gradual degeneration over evolutionary time. This phenomenon is attributed to various factors, including its relatively small size and the absence of frequent genetic recombination compared to other chromosomes. The Y-chromosome contains fewer genes than its counterpart, the X-chromosome, which undergoes recombination during meiosis, a process that shuffles genetic material between homologous chromosomes. This genetic exchange helps maintain genetic diversity and prevents the accumulation of deleterious mutations. However, the Y-chromosome, lacking a homologous partner for recombination, relies on mechanisms such as gene conversion and natural selection to maintain its integrity. Studies have shown evidence of gene loss and decay on the Y-chromosome over millions of years of evolution, leading some researchers to speculate about its eventual demise. However, it’s crucial to recognize that the disappearance of the Y-chromosome entirely is improbable due to its indispensable role in male development and reproduction. Moreover, recent research has challenged the notion of inevitable Y-chromosome degeneration. Some studies have revealed instances of gene gain and innovation on the Y-chromosome, suggesting that it may possess mechanisms to counteract degeneration. Additionally, advances in genetic technologies offer opportunities to better understand and potentially address concerns related to Y-chromosome evolution. Furthermore, the consequences of Y-chromosome degeneration are complex and multifaceted. While it may impact certain aspects of male fertility and reproductive health, human populations are dynamic, and factors such as cultural practices, social behaviors, and technological advancements can influence genetic trends over time. In conclusion, while the future of the human Y-chromosome may involve evolutionary changes, its complete disappearance is unlikely. Continued research into the mechanisms driving Y-chromosome evolution and their implications for human biology and society will provide valuable insights into our genetic future.
“The Y Chromosome in Evolutionary Biology and Medicine”. National Library of Medicine. Mar., 2, 2001. The human Y chromosome, in the light of evolution – PubMed (nih.gov) “ The Rise and Fall of the Human Y Chromosome”. Nature Magazine. Dec., 8, 2009 https://www.nature.com/articles/nrg2626 “Y Chromosome Evolution: Emerging Insights into Processes of Y Chromosome Degeneration”. Oxford Academic. Apr., 12, 2024 https://academic.oup.com/mbe/advance-article/doi/10.1093/molbev/msae074/7644656?searchresult=1 “ Evolution of the germline mutation rate across vertebrates”. Nature Magazine. Mar., 1, 2023 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-05752-y “ Genetics of Male Infertility”. National Library of Medicine. Sep., 28, 2021 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8527069/
Essays Honourable Mention 1
Deborah Banciu, Sasha Lasker, Noa and Lou-Anne SchrÃder | Walravens, Arnaud Vincent
CollÃge Cardinal Mercier, Braine-l’Alleud, Belgium
Deep down, in our system, in the core of each of our cells are 46 chromosomes, divided in 23 pairs which are forming our karyotype. You may have heard that the first 22 pairs are identical for each person, male or female, but the last one is responsible for determining the sex. For females, sexual chromosomes express themselves as XX and XY for males [1] . Until recently, each human chromosome had already been sequenced, except the Y chromosome. It is made of a multitude of short repetitive sequences called palindromes. They can be read in both ways, like the word “radar”, so it complicates their decoding. Years ago, scientific technology was not as advanced as today, so when we had to decode a molecule, it was only possible to separate it into tiny palindromes. Nowadays, it is possible to read the complete Y chromosome thanks to new sequencing technologies combined with innovative computer methods [2] .The Y chromosome appeared 200 to 300 million years ago. At that time, males and females existed already but sex was determined by environmental factors, such as temperature rather than genetics. Everything changed when the SRY gene evolved from a related gene, SOX3. It is now this gene that makes males male and not the environment. The chromosome on which SRY evolved became the first Y, and its former pair, home to SOX3, became the X chromosome [3] .The X and Y chromosomes used to have the same size but the Y chromosome started to shrink and today, it measures 1/6 of the X chromosome. Some researchers think that the male chromosome could possibly disappear. However, others think that if it comes to disappear, another gene will evolve and replace it. This will be an infinite cycle [4] . We made the decision to use an AI tool to explore the Y chromosome disappearance. In doing so, then the question arises : can we place our trust in a Large Language Model (LLM)?There are many instances where AI can be of real help. However, an LLM tool can sometimes make mistakes or even “hallucinate” [5] . Therefore, we devised an experiment to find out whether we could trust an LLM or not while exploring the Y chromosome disappearance. ( If you wish to review the sources and various links we referenced, please refer to the footnote ) . We created two chatbots. In the first one , we informed it with several articles – some of which have been published in peer-reviewed
journals – and the second one is a delusional form of Chatbot that we fed with fictional scientific texts created thanks to ChatGPT . We then asked them both the following question : “write a 350 word essay on the topic: Is the human Y-chromosome vanishing in the future?”. After that, they both gave us two different essays . They both responded with points tied to the documents we provided. Both essays have the appearance of real, trustable, scientific articles and this is the danger for people who are not used to being faced with fake information and fake sources. The problem is not the answer given by the tool but where it takes the information from.If people start to believe everything that an LLM provides, the world will be filled with fake news like the speculation concerning the vanishing Y chromosome that our delusional chatbot produced. Sometimes, artificial intelligence makes up an answer and when you ask for the sources, it will come up with fake ones. This experiment with the two chatbots has assisted us in the making of this essay by comparing our two texts to demonstrate that we have to verify each and every source that an artificial intelligence tool gives us. In conclusion, this experiment shows us the danger of trusting information given by the LLM without checking the sources. AI can often offer benefits but it varies. At the end of the day, the ultimate question is not so much about whether we can trust an LLM, but rather how we can gain control over its knowledge base. Such control – or the absence thereof – will lead to radically different outcomes and consequences should the public believe the content of the A.I. output was actually true.
Footnotes https://poe.com/DNAContestBot_2024
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1A1VqbW1kPPyQPu9WyUyFo8NDy8qnR3IfqjyucYKcnJg/edit?usp=sharing
https://poe.com/Marcelou
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1n1IrYu65uXHmqJSYSwvkY016QXkfk84I?usp=drive_link
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1VEyIMSjoHQc9wguaGlh9aTsCLwqEUBdDLcRsVPBrL1g/edit?usp=sharing
As explained in the students’essay, the same LLM was used with two different knowledge bases, resulting in two different texts of approximately 350 words each. You’ll find these two Chat Bot essays here: https://docs.google.com/document/d/1VEyIMSjoHQc9wguaGlh9aTsCLwqEUBdDLcRsVPBrL1g/edit?usp=sharing
References :[1] Bowdler, N. 2012. Male Y chromosome extinction theory challenged. BBC News . 22 February 2012. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-17127617 ( Last consulted : 11/04/2024 )[2] Salamon, G. 2023. Le mystérieux chromosome Y enfin décodé : ce qu’il nous apprend sur l’évolution humaine. BBC News. 30 August 2023. https://www.futura-sciences.com/sante/actualites/biologie-mysterieux-chromosome-y-enfin-decode-ce-quil-nous-apprend-evolution-humaine-107342/ ( Last consulted : 04/04/2024 )[3] Thomson, J. 2022. The Y Chromosome is going to disappear Scientists say. Newsweek. 29 November 2022. The Y Chromosome Is Going To Disappear, Scientists Say (newsweek.com) ( Last consulted : 04/04/2024 )[4] Griffin, D. K. 2012. Is the Y chromosome disappearing? – Both sides of the argument. Chromosome Research: an international journal on the molecular, supramolecular and evolutionary aspects of chromosome biology , 20(1), 35-45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10577-011-9252-1 ( Last consulted : 09/04/2024 )[5] Metz, C. 2023. What Exactly Are the Dangers Posed by A.I.? The New York Times . 1 May 2023. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/01/technology/ai-problems-danger-chatgpt.html (Last consulted: 24/04/2024)
Essays Honourable Mention 2
Is the human Y-chromosome vanishing in the future?
Leonor BrandÃo
Agrupamento de Escolas de Alpendorada, Alpendorada, Portugal
Artificial Intelligence has been part of our history for a long time and, through the years, has emerged as one of the most transformative and impactful technologies in our world. Defined as a machine-based system that has the same capabilities as human beings (Stackpole, 2024) 1 artificial intelligence offers a wide area of application, such as in genetics. Moreover, artificial intelligence chats can collect a wide variety of information and boil it down to the most important. However, it does not have the same critical perspective as humans, which can put at risk the veracity of the content generated, as well as, ethical implications on society when regarding its application to health.When it comes to the essay written on the artificial intelligence chat, I believe that the results addressed in it, acknowledge the scientific information published about the gradual diminishing of the human Y chromosome.The human Y chromosome represents an iconic image of “maleness”. The mutation, deletion, or rearrangement of the Y often leads to attendance in infertility clinics. Its evolutionary history is, however, one of gene loss, inversion, and heterochromatin accumulation. 2 Furthermore, there is a little controversy about the Y chromosome.While for some, we are beholding the Y on its way to nonexistence, for others, it has evolved effective mechanisms to hang on to life endlessly.On one hand, in the belief of the scientific community and as mentioned in the artificial intelligence chat, the tiny size of the sex chromosome as its limited genetic content, may contribute to its disappearance in the future. Although the Y chromosome contains about 50 to 60 genes and makes up 2% of a cell’s DNA 3 , through the years, it has been degenerating, consequently leading scientists to carry a study into it and concluding is due to the Y chromosome having only one copy which has degraded rapidly over time, unlike other chromosomes that are in pairs.On the other hand, scientists like Jenn Hughes believe that the Y chromosome has not yet disappeared, and even if it does, there may be a solution to define the male sex. With this in mind, the artificial chat has, once more, a dime a dozen with the scientific community. For AI, the Y chromosome’s ability mechanisms to repair and keep its genetic integrity ensures its persistence. Likewise, a study conducted in the Ganges Delta in West Bengal and Bangladesh, where the effects of arsenic exposure on the human Y chromosome in males from different areas, focusing on known recombination events, were studied, concludes, considering the Y chromosome analysis, that the male chromosome has unidentified tools maintaining its structural and functional integrities. 4 Also, an article published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 5 executed a study on rodents that lost the Y chromosome and adapted to life without it. The team, led by biologist Asato Kuroiwa of Hokkaido University in Japan, found that most of the animal’s Y genes were reallocated to other chromosomes. Kuroiwa’s team identified specific genetic patterns in the male chromosomes that were not present in females. Subsequently, to confirm the data tested, they refined the technique and examined the sequence in each mouse individually. Eventually, they found a difference in the rodents’ sex genes, “The duplication was absent from the genomes of all three females but present in all three males” (Terao, et al., 2022) 5 . The scientists suggest that this replicated DNA fragment contains the switch that turns on SOX9, responsible for activating the SRY sex gene, which is absent in animals. By inserting this duplication into the mice, the alteration increased the SOX9 activity, allowing the gene to function without SRY. So, in the same way as rats, humans could develop a new gene that determines the male sex. According to the study group, the change is still far from happening and should only manifest itself millions of years from now. Even so, they believe the path to genetic evolution can be traced and thus avoid human extinction. 6 Given the circumstances, it seems reasonable to assume that the public should believe the content of the A.I essay since its results are in line with the opinion of the scientific community as well as the studies conducted, concluding that the vanishing of the human Y chromosome is unknown. Although it is far from happening and there are alternatives, we cannot exclude the possibility of its disappearance.
The human Y-chromosome has recently sparked discussions regarding its future. Some researchers suggest that the Y-chromosome is gradually diminishing, raising concerns about its potential disappearance. This essay explores the current state of the Y-chromosome, the factors contributing to its perceived vulnerability, and the implications for the future of human genetics. The Y-chromosome is one of the two sex chromosomes. While the X-chromosome is relatively stable, the Y-chromosome has been subject to occasional mutations and genetic rearrangements over time. Despite this, the Y-chromosome has persisted throughout human evolution, remaining essential for reproduction and the inheritance of male traits. Several factors contribute to concerns about the potential vanishing of the Y-chromosome. One consideration is the Y-chromosome’s small size and limited genetic content compared to its counterpart, the X-chromosome. Additionally, the Y-chromosome undergoes a unique process of recombination during reproduction, which can lead to the loss of genetic material. These factors, coupled with the presence of specific genes on the Y-chromosome that are essential for male fertility, have led some researchers to suggest that it may be vulnerable to degradation over time. While concerns exist, it is crucial to acknowledge that evolution and natural selection play essential roles in maintaining genetic diversity. The Y-chromosome’s ability to adapt to changing environments and selective pressures has enabled its persistence throughout human history. Research also indicates that the Y-chromosome has mechanisms to repair and maintain its genetic integrity, ensuring its continued presence in the human gene pool. If the Y-chromosome were to vanish, it would have profound implications for human genetics and reproduction. However, the likelihood of such an event remains speculative, as the current scientific understanding suggests that the Y-chromosome is far from disappearing. Continued research into the dynamics of the Y-chromosome, along with advancements in genetic technologies, will contribute to a better understanding of its future and the potential consequences for human evolution. While concerns about the vanishing Y-chromosome persist, current scientific evidence suggests that such a scenario is unlikely. The Y-chromosome, though subject to unique challenges, has demonstrated resilience and adaptability. Ongoing research will provide further insights into the dynamics of the Y-chromosome.
1 Brown, S. (2021, April 21). Machine learning, explained. MIT Sloan. https://mitsloan.mit.edu/ideas-made-to-matter/machine-learning-explained (retrieved 25th February)
2 Griffin, D.K., Ellis, P.J.I. (2018). The Human Y-chromosome: Evolutionary Directions and Implications for the Future of “Maleness”. In: Palermo, G., Sills, E. (eds) Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70497-5_13 (retrieved 11 th February)
3 Hurle, B. (2024, April 15). Y chromosome. National Human Genome Research Institute. https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Y-Chromosome. (retrieved 25th February)
4 Ali, S., Ali, S. Genetic integrity of the human Y chromosome exposed to groundwater arsenic. BMC Med Genomics 3, 35 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1186/1755-8794-3-35 (retrieved 11 th February)
5 Terao, M.; Ogawa, Y.; Takada, S.; Kajitani, R.; Okuno, M.; Mochimaru, Y.; Matsuoka, K.; Itoh, T.; Toyoda, A.; Kono, T.; Jogahara, T.; Mizu, S.; Kuroina, A. (2022). Turnover of mammal sex chromosomes in the Sry-deficient Amami spiny rat is due to male-specific upregulation of Sox9. PNAS , Vol. 119 (No. 49), 7. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2211574119 (retrieved 11 th February)
6 Sandes, Eline (2022, December 7). Cientistas apontam que novo cromossomo pode dfinir o sexo masculino. Metrópoles . https://www.metropoles.com/saude/cientistas-apontam-que-novo-cromossomo-pode-definir-o-sexo-masculino (retrieved 11 th February)
Essays Honourable Mention 3
Deciphering the Evolutionary Resilience of the Y Chromosome: An Analysis of AI Insights
Ocelia Lieven
LycÃe Notre-Dame de Sion, Saint-Omer, France
Recent advancements in Artificial Intelligence (A.I.) lead us to use it more frequently and rely on the information it gives us. AI technology employs machine learning and algorithms to cross check sources to explain a topic concisely. In this essay, we will explore an AI’s answer to the question “Will the human Y-chromosome vanish in the future?” and verify the information given to us. Furthermore, we will answer the question of whether an AI is a trustworthy source.
To understand the analysis of the AI’s response some background information is needed. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, 22 pairs of homologous autosomes (non-sex determining chromosomes) and 1 pair of sex chromosomes. There exists two types of sex chromosomes (X and Y), females have two X chromosomes whereas males have one X and one Y. The Y chromosome is much smaller than the X chromosome and therefore contains less genes. (1)Firstly, the AI introduces the phenomenon of Y-chromosomal degeneration by stating “the Y-chromosome experiences limited recombination with its counterpart, the X-chromosome”. Picture:(14)Sex chromosomes contain small regions at their extremities named pseudoautosomal regions (PARs) which are the only parts able to exchange genetic material during meiosis. In the Y chromosome, these PARs represent only 5% of the entire chromosome, the remaining 95% is named the Non-Recombining Y (NRY). The PAR found on the short-arm tip (named PAR1) shows a much larger frequency of pairing and recombination than the one found at the long-arm tip (named PAR2). Due to these regions being so small and containing few genes (24 known genes in PAR1 and 4 in PAR2)(2), the chromosome does indeed experience limited recombination with the X chromosome.(3,4)Secondly, the AI states “This lack of recombination exposes the Y-chromosome to a higher risk of accumulating mutations over time”Although true that the limited recombination limits the exchange of genes and therefore exposes the chromosome to risks of mutations, the Y chromosome is able to recombine with itself. The NRY section of the Y chromosome shows three main parts: X-transposed, X-degenerate, and ampliconic. The X-transposed and X-degenerate consist of a 4.7Million year old X to Y transposition and the remnants of proto-sex chromosomes, respectively. The ampliconic part consists of palindromic sequences.(5) These are inverted repeat sequences.These palindromic sequences allow for the Y chromosome to recombine with itself by folding and ‘copy-pasting’ a sequence onto another, that being the mutation or the correct sequence. The genome is therefore conserved.(6, 7)Furthermore the AI states that gene conversion allows the Y chromosome to maintain its stability. Inter-chromosomal gene conversion (ICGC) is a mechanism that allows one chromosome to donate a specific sequence to another, X to Y conversions occur much more frequently than the opposite. These gene conversions allow for more allelic diversity and therefore increases the Y chromosome resistance to mutations.(8)The AI states that the Y chromosome has “displayed remarkable resilience throughout evolutionary history”. The sex chromosomes originated as a pair of autosomes 180 Million years ago. Despite the original degradation of the Y chromosome, it has now reached a point where important gene sequences have been able to remain stable and even in many cases, with the help of processes such as ICGC, have evolved to become more resistant.(9,10).The last statement introduces the topic of genetic engineering: “scientists have the ability to manipulate and modify genetic material”. While it is true that genetic engineering allows us to manipulate genetic material, the Y chromosome is still difficult to modify as it is repeat-rich and contains many unknown regions and gene sequences. However, as the field is rapidly evolving and new discoveries are often made, there may reach a point where sex chromosomes could easily be genetically modified to increase their resistance. (11)In conclusion, the AI’s response to the original question is properly targeted and simplified, additionally, it views the complex topic from different angles. Many statements outputted by the AI are correct, one mistake was made regarding genetic engineering. This proves that
even if the general information given is correct, it is always important to research the topic individually rather than relying on Artificial Intelligence. The Y chromosome is bound to be subject to modifications throughout time just as it has been in the past, however it is important to note that even if the Y chromosome’s future remains unknown, there exists mechanisms that prevent it from sudden extinction.
“ Title: The Future of the Human Y-Chromosome: A Contemplation on Extinction
The fate of the human Y-chromosome has been a subject of scientific speculation and debate, raising questions about its potential disappearance in the future. The Y-chromosome, a crucial component in determining male sex, has been a symbol of masculinity and genetic inheritance. However, recent advancements in genetic research and concerns about its evolutionary stability have prompted discussions about its potential demise. One of the primary factors contributing to the speculation surrounding the vanishing Y-chromosome is the phenomenon of Y-chromosomal degeneration. Unlike other chromosomes that undergo genetic recombination during the formation of sperm and egg cells, the Y-chromosome experiences limited recombination with its counterpart, the X-chromosome. This lack of recombination exposes the Y -chromosome to a higher risk of accumulating mutations over time, potentially leading to its eventual decay. Despite these concerns, it is essential to note that the Y-chromosome has displayed remarkable resilience throughout evolutionary history. Mechanisms such as gene conversion, which allows the Y-chromosome to repair damaged genes through interaction with the X-chromosome, have played a c rucial role in maintaining its stability. Additionally, the Y-chromosome carries genes responsible for male reproductive functions, making its preservation vital for the continuation of the human species. Advancements in reproductive technologies and genetic engineering further complicate the prediction of the Y-chromosome’s fate. In the era of assisted reproductive techniques and gene editing, scientists have the ability to manipulate and modify genetic material, potentially influencing the future of the Y-chromosome. Ethical considerations surrounding such interventions, however, raise important questions about the implications of tampering with fundamental aspects of human biology. In conclusion, the question of whether the human Y-chromosome will vanish in the future remains a topic of scientific inquiry and speculation. While concerns about Y-chromosomal degeneration exist, the chromosome has demonstrated resilience throughout evolution. The intersection of genetics, reproductive technologies, and ethical considerations adds layers of complexity to this discussion. As we navigate the frontier of genetic research, it is crucial to approach the future of the Y-chromosome with a balanced understanding of its evolutionary history and the ethical implications of potential interventions.”
- https://www.britannica.com/science/sex-chromosome2. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC79676/3. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18660847/#:~:text=The%20 pseudoautosomal%20regions%204. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-58997-2#:~:text=Introduction,chromosomes1%2C2%2C3.5. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fgene.2017.00054/full6. https://www.biointeractive.org/classroom-resources/recombination-y-chromosome7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palindromic_sequence8. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fgene.2017.00054/full9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6280758/10. https://www.biointeractive.org/classroom-resources/evolution-y-chromosome11. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24821795/12. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bies.2028813. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1692900/14. https://opengenetics.pressbooks.tru.ca/chapter/y-linked-gene/
Essays Honourable Mention 4
Is the human Y-chromosome vanishing in the future?
Harriet Allen-Ellis, Astrid Edmunds
Wellington College, Crowthorne, United Kingdom
The miniscule Y chromosome is emblematic of masculinity due to the SRY gene, that encodes for testis-determining-factor that causes men to release testosterone, however it is not as genetically secure as many presume. It is evident why the Y is an unpopular research topic among scientists as it is composed of 66% repetitive DNA 1 , which is almost impossible to quantify or assemble. In addition, the Y chromosome can also have effects on human health, for example, “loss of the Y chromosome (mLOY) in the peripheral white blood cells predisposes men to various diseases, including cancers, cardiovascular and Alzheimer’s diseases” 2 . Reasons for these conditions are still being researched in relation to the Y chromosome. This artificially-generated essay has scientific accuracy, but as AI becomes a dominating feature in schools and workplaces, we should read AI with existing understanding of the topic and academic scrutiny.
A multitude of existing animals have already lost their Y chromosome: the male grasshopper, the mole vole, and Japanese Spiny Rats, to name a few. In humans, “the chromosome is missing from at least some white blood cells in about 40% of 70-year-olds and 57% of 93-year-olds” 3 . The Y chromosome has lost around 97% of its ancestral genes. One reason is because the Y contains only around 100 genes, meaning any loss during cell division is much more severe than in the X chromosome, which contains 900 to 1,400 genes. Secondly, the Y chromosome is unable to perform genetic recombination, which shuffles DNA to prevent mutations and allow variation. Due to the Y’s lack of genes, only the tips can switch. Initial research agrees with AI that there has been a ‘loss of genes’ due to the Y chromosome being ‘susceptible to mutations’, showing a doomed, degenerative future for the otherwise macho Y chromosome. More recently, a research group called the T2T consortium created a “62,460,029-base-pair sequence of a human Y chromosome” 4 in 2022. This has allowed scientists to see a defence mechanism which partially eliminates further variation in the Y due to “identification of 146 historical gene conversion events ⋯ at a rate of 2.9-8.4×10 −4 events per generation” 5 . G-C biased gene conversion in palindromic (genetically symmetrical) regions of DNA experience a guanine-cytosine biased substitution in the DNA, increasing variance of Y. When the AI essay mentioned the ‘self-preservation system’ in the Y chromosome, it is likely that this is what was being referred to. While the AI-generated essay is unbiased and contains no theoretical errors, there is ambiguity. It mentions that the Y chromosome ‘has undergone a stabilization process’, referring to telomere protein structures which prevent gene loss by “protecting the ends of the DNA from binding to one another and to itself, allowing for complete chromosomal replication” 6 . However, “continuous telomere erosion results in replicative senescence and contributes to ageing” 7 , so this is not a costless mechanism. Moreover, ChatGPT stated ‘studies have linked Y-chromosome variations to an increased risk of certain diseases’, however, did not cite which studies have been used nor state which diseases, which is a fundamental limitation of AI. The link between loss of the Y chromosome and disease is still being researched, however we know that degeneration of the Y causes the “development of multiple cancers and Alzheimer’s disease” 8 , after “analysis of 47 non-diseased tissues from the Genotype Tissue EXpression project and 12 cancer types from The Cancer Genome Atlas” 8 . Finally, the AI-generated essay stated that the Y chromosome is ‘crucial for male sex determination and fertility’. In some species, the Y has been lost and replaced. For example, when the X chromosome fused with an autosome in a species of Drosophila, “this created another male-specific chromosome, and in D. pseudoobscura, the Y in turn was terminally degraded” 9 . Some organisms, such as birds, have entirely different sex determination systems that do not involve the Y chromosome, and rather use a Z and W chromosome. Therefore, the Y chromosome is not always crucial for sex determination/fertility and can be replicated. In conclusion, AI can be extremely useful for scientists in tedious areas such as synthesising new drugs or materials, processing large data groups, and predicting protein structures. Despite this, AI should be used as an insight, not as an incontestable pool of knowledge. AI can effectively summarise knowledge from multiple sources into an informative page but cannot determine accuracy and biases of sources. The public should understand the subject they are researching before blindly believing this ChatGPT essay, as chromosomal degeneration is a complex, ongoing debate without a concrete future.
“The Y-chromosome, often considered the symbol of maleness, has been a subject of fascination and concern in scientific circles regarding its potential disappearance. The Y-chromosome is unique as it primarily passes from father to son, carrying genetic information crucial for male sex determination and fertility. One prevailing notion suggests that the Y-chromosome might indeed dwindle over time. This hypothesis stems from the Y-chromosome’s evolutionary history, which has shown a pattern of degeneration and loss of genes over millions of years. This erosion has led to speculation that the Y-chromosome could eventually vanish altogether. Research has pointed out that the Y-chromosome is notably smaller than its counterpart, the X-chromosome, and is susceptible to mutations due to its limited recombination with the X-chromosome during cell division. However, these fears of its complete disappearance might be premature. Recent studies have revealed surprising resilience and adaptive mechanisms within the Y-chromosome. Evolutionary biologists have discovered that the Y-chromosome possesses a self-preservation system that counteracts gene loss and maintains essential genetic functions. Moreover, the Y-chromosome has undergone a stabilization process, halting the rapid gene decay that was once a concern. Advancements in genetic technology and research methodologies have also shed light on the complexity of the Y-chromosome’s role beyond determining maleness. It influences various aspects of health and might have functions that extend beyond traditional perceptions. For instance, studies have linked Y-chromosome variations to an increased risk of certain diseases, highlighting its significance beyond solely determining sex. Furthermore, the evolutionary process is dynamic and unpredictable. While some speculate about the Y-chromosome’s future, natural selection continues to act upon genetic variations. It is plausible that the Y-chromosome might undergo further changes or adaptations that ensure its persistence, albeit in an altered form. In conclusion, the vanishing of the human Y-chromosome remains a captivating topic that invites speculation and ongoing scientific inquiry. While concerns about its potential demise exist due to historical trends of gene loss, recent research demonstrates the Y-chromosome’s resilience and adaptive mechanisms. The future of this chromosome remains uncertain, but its role in genetics and evolution continues to intrigue scientists, prompting further exploration and understanding.”
- National Human Genome Research Institute. (2022). Y Chromosome Infographic . [Online]. NIH. Last Updated: August 23, 2023. Available at: https://www.genome.gov/about-genomics/fact-sheets/Y-Chromosome-facts [Accessed 24 March 2024]. Y Chromosome (genome.gov) 2. Lau, YF.C. (2020). Y chromosome in health and diseases. [Online]. BMC. Last Updated: 13 August 2020. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13578-020-00452-w [Accessed 29 December 2023]. Y chromosome in health and diseases | Cell & Bioscience | Full Text (biomedcentral.com) 3. Leslie M. (14 July 2022). Men lose Y chromasomes as they age. It may be harming their hearts. [Online]. Science. Last Updated: 14 July 2022. Available at: https://www.science.org/content/article/men-lose-y-chromosomes-they-age-it-may-be-harming-their-hear [Accessed 6 January 2024]. Men lose Y chromosomes as they age. It may be harming their hearts | Science | AAAS 4. Rhie A, Nurk S, Cechova M, Hoyt SJ, Taylor DJ, Altemose N, Hook PW, Koren S, Rautiainen M, Alexandrov IA, Allen J, Asri M, Bzikadze AV, Chen NC, Chin CS, Diekhans M, Flicek P, Formenti G, Fungtammasan A, Garcia Giron C, Garrison E, Gershman A, Gerton JL, Grady PGS, Guarracino A, Haggerty L, Halabian R, Hansen NF, Harris R, Hartley GA, Harvey WT, Haukness M, Heinz J, Hourlier T, Hubley RM, Hunt SE, Hwang S, Jain M, Kesharwani RK, Lewis AP, Li H, Logsdon GA, Lucas JK, Makalowski W, Markovic C, Martin FJ, Mc Cartney AM, McCoy RC, McDaniel J, McNulty BM, Medvedev P, Mikheenko A, Munson KM, Murphy TD, Olsen HE, Olson ND, Paulin LF, Porubsky D, Potapova T, Ryabov F, Salzberg SL, Sauria MEG, Sedlazeck FJ, Shafin K, Shepelev VA, Shumate A, Storer JM, Surapaneni L, Taravella Oill AM, Thibaud-Nissen F, Timp W, Tomaszkiewicz M, Vollger MR, Walenz BP, Watwood AC, Weissensteiner MH, Wenger AM, Wilson MA, Zarate S, Zhu Y, Zook JM, Eichler EE, O’Neill RJ, Schatz MC, Miga KH, Makova KD, Phillippy AM. The complete sequence of a human Y chromosome. Nature. 2023 Sep;621(7978):344-354. doi: 10.1038/s41586-023-06457-y. Epub 2023 Aug 23. PMID: 37612512; PMCID: PMC10752217. The complete sequence of a human Y chromosome – PubMed (nih.gov) 5. Hallast P, Balaresque P, Bowden G.R, Ballereau S, Jobling M.A. (July 25, 2013). Recombination Dynamics of a Human Y-Chromosomal Palindrome: Rapid GC-Biased Gene Conversion, Multi-kilobase Conversion T . [Online]. Plos Genetics. Last Updated: July 25, 2013. Available at: https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1003666 [Accessed 6 January 2024]. Recombination Dynamics of a Human Y-Chromosomal Palindrome: Rapid GC-Biased Gene Conversion, Multi-kilobase Conversion Tracts, and Rare Inversions | PLOS Genetics 6. Lee J, Pellegrini M.V. (December 11, 2022.). Biochemistry, Telomere And Telomerase . [Online]. NIH: National Library of Medicine. Last Updated: December 11, 2022. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK576429/ [Accessed 6 January 2024]. Biochemistry, Telomere And Telomerase – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf (nih.gov) 7. Henriques C.M, Ferreira M.G. (December 2012). Consequences of telomere shortening during lifespan . [Online]. ScienceDirect. Last Updated: December 2012. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S095506741200155X [Accessed 6 January 2024]. Consequences of telomere shortening during lifespan – ScienceDirect 8. Wilson M.A. (29 July 2021). The Y chromosome and its impact on health and disease . [Online]. Oxford Academic. Last Updated: 15 October 2021. Available at: https://academic.oup.com/hmg/article/30/R2/R296/6330028 [Accessed 6 January 2024]. Y chromosome and its impact on health and disease | Human Molecular Genetics | Oxford Academic (oup.com) 9. Graves J.A.M. (10 March 2006). Sex Chromosome Specialization and Degeneration in Mammals . [Online]. Cell, Leading Edge Review. Last Updated: 10 March 2006. Available at: https://www.cell.com/action/showPdf?pii=S0092-8674%2806%2900241-8 [Accessed 6 January 2024]. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2006.02.024
Essays Honourable Mention 5
The future of the Y chromosome: Debating Claims made by AI
Abimbola Alimat Balogun, Sarah Jinks
St Clare’s Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
In a world increasingly shaped by artificial intelligence, the future of the Y chromosome is a hotly debated topic, stirring doubts about its genetic future. In the ongoing debate of whether the Y chromosome is likely to disappear, ChatGPT delivered a balanced argument for the possibility of this happening (or not), which will be challenged in this essay. But before delving into the depths of this debate, it is essential to unravel the significance of the Y chromosome itself – a minute yet mighty chromosome that has a profound influence on determining gender and is responsible for passing down genetic information. The Y-chromosome undergoes limited recombination during meiosis, reducing genetic diversity and increasing vulnerability to harmful mutations, which can cause the Y-chromosome to degrade and potentially disappear(ChatGPT). This a true claim, regarding the fact that DNA loses 10 genes every million years, leading to the loss of over 1600 genes (Alyssa Bradford, Deseret 2024). Although this sounds like the Y chromosome is on the road to extinction, a recent Danish study discovered that the Y chromosome developed these unusual structures called palindromes (DNA sequences that read the same forwards), which led to a higher rate of gene conservation events within the palindromic sequences on the Y chromosome. This shows that the Y chromosome has formed a sort of defense mechanism that stops the relevant genes from disappearing, seeing as there are only 42 non-repeated coding genes out of 693 genes (Wikipedia) Declining fertility rates and changes in family structures could contribute to the gradual loss of the Y chromosome(ChatGPT). This is a false claim, because although the Y chromosomes have slowly been losing their genes over time, there’s no evolutionary pressure for the Y chromosomes to disappear, seeing as they still have their vital functions in males. Even though birthrates are decreasing due to more females being involved in the workforce and increases in the cost of living resulting in lower birth rates, as long as males are born, the Y chromosome will continue to be passed down. Although these claims sound alarming, there has been ongoing research showing that even in the species that have lost their Y chromosomes completely, males and females are both still necessary for reproduction. In these cases, the SRY “master switch” gene that determines genetic maleness has moved to a different chromosome, meaning that these species produce males without needing a Y chromosome(Palermo, Gianpier. 2018). This means that genetic engineering may soon be able to replace the gene function of the chromosome, allowing same-sex female couples or infertile men to conceive. However, even if it became possible for everybody to conceive in this way, it seems highly unlikely that fertile humans would just stop reproducing naturally. In the unlikely case of the human race depending on gene editing techniques to preserve Y chromosomes, the recent discovery of CRISPR-CAS 9 technology, has now made it possible for scientists to correct any genetic defects that could lead to its disappearance, and with those edited chromosomes, they could be introduced to future generations by either somatic cell gene therapy, where the artificial Y chromosome could be introduced directly into the body, targeting the specific tissues or organs involved in male reproduction or by germline gene therapy, where the edited Y chromosome could be introduced into the sperm precursor cells to ensure the male off-spring would receive the modified Y chromosome. Evolutionary mechanisms such as natural selection and genetic drift may help to preserve its integrity over time(ChatGPT). I support this claim because the purpose of natural selection is to allow the survival of an organism in its environment by selectively changing its genotype, which prevents desirable genes from going extinct. Genetic drift is an important tool as well, which eliminates irrelevant variations of genes, causing the genetic diversity of the chromosome to reduce(Wilson Sayres, 2014). In conclusion, research indicates that the Y chromosome may have mechanisms to slow down its deterioration, but research has also shown that gene loss does not always result in the loss of an entire gene. The Y chromosome will probably continue to exist because of evolutionary processes like natural selection as long as it can continue to carry out its essential role. The existence of the Y chromosome will likely be debated in the future. However, for the time being, a wealth of evidence indicates that we can still rely on Y chromosome production to produce male offspring that are fertile.
Essays Honourable Mention 6
AI and Scientific Discourse: Evaluating Bias in the Narrative of the Y-Chromosome Extinction
Aadi Choudhary, Eda Kenan
HIS International, Heidelberg, Germany
In the realm of artificial intelligence, models like ChatGPT generate responses based on probabilities and past linguistic patterns. However, when discussing scientific topics, it becomes imperative to scrutinize the veracity and balance of information provided by these AI’s. In this essay, I will critically evaluate an AI-generated essay regarding the fate of the Y-chromosome, and discuss its strengths, weaknesses and future implications for scientific discourse and public understanding.
ChatGPT initially presents a biased view, dismissing the notion of the Y-chromosome’s extinction as “speculation” which lacks support from scientific theories and evidence. Additionally, it fails to present a balanced perspective, address counterarguments adequately, and cite sources. This indicates that users might be receiving unsourced, one-sided, and potentially inaccurate views of different scientific ideas and theories.
To start off the analysis, we can examine the credibility of the AI’s arguments and output against the accepted scientific literature. The AI’s first counterargument is the theory of adaptive evolution, which it cites as a cornerstone theory of the Y-chromosome’s ability to mitigate deleterious mutations and maintain essential genes.
However, according to the current scientific literature, the Y-chromosome’s natural selection process has resulted in fewer genes and a shrinking chromosomal size over time. Around 97% of its ancestral genes have already been lost over the past 180 million years [1] , which when extrapolated, leads to studies estimating its disappearance within the next 4.6 million [2] to 10 million years [3] . So, while adaptive evolution may help preserve some genes, it doesn’t counteract the overall gene loss trend.
Next, the AI mentions gene conversion and gene amplification as mechanisms contributing to the Y-chromosome’s stability. While these processes may introduce genetic diversity and enhance the functionality of specific genes, they still don’t counteract the overall trend of gene loss and degradation observed in the Y-chromosome.
The AI also discusses Müller’s Ratchet, a theory explaining the Y-chromosome’s deterioration due to irreversible mutations caused by the lack of recombination. However, it dismisses this theory, claiming recent research challenges it. However, recent studies suggest Müller’s Ratchet is significant in the Y-chromosome’s shrinking size, with simulations showing a Y-chromosome’s size decreasing over time in sexual populations. [4][5]
Additionally, we also have empirical evidence from animals whose Y-chromosome has degenerated into non-existence. For instance, the Amami Spiny Rat has lost the entirety of its Y-chromosome. [6] Another set of examples are nematodes, with most nematode species completely losing the entirety of their Y-chromosome. [7]
The AI then mentions horizontal gene transfer as a contributor to genetic diversity and adaptation. However, it overlooks its limited effectiveness for the Y-chromosome, as it can only occur in small pseudoautosomal regions at the telomeres, comprising just 5% of the chromosome’s length. The remaining 95%, known as the MRY (Male-specific region of the Y-chromosome) or NRY (Non-recombinant region of the Y-chromosome), cannot recombine with the X-chromosome. [8]
Finally, the AI mentions regulatory functions of non-coding regions on the Y-chromosome as contributing to its adaptability. While non-coding regions do play regulatory roles in the case of development, reproduction, and immune response, [9][10] their effect on the overall stability and survival of the Y-chromosome remains to be fully shown using scientific evidence.
After careful analysis, it’s clear that ChatGPT’s essay does not represent the topic adequately, presenting a one-sided view without considering the various different factors at play. It overlooks significant challenges to the continued existence of the Y-chromosome, such as its high mutation rate (with a factor of 4.8) [11] , the hitchhiking of deleterious alleles with beneficial ones [12] , the historical gene loss in the human Y-chromosome [1] , limited recombination ability across 95% of its length [8] , and the numerous examples of animals losing their entire Y-chromosome [6][7] .
Because of the AI’s errors and one-sided viewpoint, I advise against trusting its knowledge. Accepting its essay as truth could have serious consequences like misinformation, misinterpretation of science and misguided policy decisions. For instance, if policymakers relied on AI’s dismissal of the Y-chromosomes shrinking, it could lead to its disappearance, potentially threatening humanity’s existence by inhibiting the creation of males. Furthermore, believing the AI could also disrupt scientific research priorities, hampering progress and impeding our understanding of genetics.
In conclusion, while AI generated content can provide basic insights, it’s crucial to not blindly accept it and instead critically evaluate it alongside established scientific knowledge. The public should approach AI generated content with skepticism and seek additional sources and input from experts in the field to develop a comprehensive and accurate understanding of the topic.
Essays Honourable Mention 7
Is the Y-chromosome going to disappear?
Madalena R Martins, Santiago M Rojas, Rafael C Lopes
Escola Secundária da Ramada, Ramada, Portugal
Is the Y-chromosome going to disappear?
Upon being asked to write a 350-word essay to answer the question: “Is the Y chromosome vanishing in the future?”, AI presented us with an ambiguous answer: “Ongoing research into the dynamics of Y-chromosome evolution will further elucidate its role in human biology and evolution.” (DeepAI, 2024). However, there is an even more important question, underlined by this task AI was provided with, and that is if we should trust both artificial intelligence and its results and how that could affect Humanity. The Y chromosome, passed on from father to son, is responsible for sex determination in the human species, with “limited genetic content compared to the X-chromosome” (DeepAI, 2024). The Y chromosome doesn’t undergo genetic recombination during meiosis, because it does not have a homologous chromosome, which leads to inefficient selection and loss of genetic material over time (Arney, 2023). Regarding this topic, the AI starts by affirming that “Several studies have documented the gradual degeneration of the Y-chromosome throughout evolutionary history.” (DeepAI, 2024). In fact, it adds to this, underlining the reduction in the size and functional capacity that this chromosome presents. However, AI also evidences the fact that the Y-chromosome, despite decreasing, has persisted throughout milenia. In reality, the Y-chromosome has a lot of mechanisms, such as gene conversion (repairment of damaged DNA), that allow it to maintain a modicum of integrity and functionality. While the Y-chromosome undergoes various genetic changes, it is also extremely stable in many regions, especially ones that are essential for male reproduction. (Sun & Heitman, 2012)Therefore, AI concludes that this chromosome “is not expected to vanish completely in the foreseeable future.” Humanity is nowadays bombarded with information, much of which is partially or completely false. As so, it’s important to ask the question: “Should the public believe that what AI says is true, what would the consequences be?”. The use of AI sources in media has been a controversial issue ever since its beginning and the consequences, in extreme cases, may be devastating. Artificial intelligence, while fast and accessible, has no contextual understanding, leading to the creation of out-of-context and sometimes extreme statements. Therefore, the disclosure of this information that, while not necessarily wrong, is often stylized or radicalized, might lead to misinformation of the masses. In order to avoid misconceptions and confusion of the general public, as well as future scientific mistakes, the use of AI sources should always be fact checked and backed up by reliable sources.So, is the Y-chromosome really vanishing in the near future? 166 millions years ago, the Y-chromosome had the same size as the X-chromosome, but today the gender specific portion of the Y-chromosome has about 1/6 of the size and only 1/12 of the genes in comparison to its counterpart (Griffin, 2012). But why? During meiosis, the process by which humans form gametes, the cells divide themselves into four genetically different ones that contain half of the original DNA amount. During the first meiosis, crossing-over occurs (different segments switch between the homologous chromosomes), further increasing the biological diversity of the gametes. However, because the counterpart for the Y-chromosome is the X, crossing-over does not occur when a man’s gametes are being formed, leading to the perpetuation of genetic mutations and the decrease of biological diversity. (Arney, 2023).However, this chromosome has developed mechanisms to prevent genetic decay, such as the addition of new genes coming both from the X-chromosome and from the autosomal regions of the DNA. (Ricchio et al., 2021). Furthermore, the Y-chromosome has shown signs of repairing itself through a process called gene conversion, using various of its own segments that present themselves as palindromes (regions that are identical when inverted). This allows for an equilibrium between the rate of gene loss and gain. (Trombetta & Cruciani, 2017).To conclude, recent studies agree that the Y-chromosome, though diminishing, will not completely disappear in the years to come. If the rate of gene loss increases, Humanity might find itself before a redefinition of masculinity and fertility, but the studies indicate that the Y-chromosome developed new techniques to outmaneuver the gene decay. Even though AI didn’t present a definitive answer, even warning the reader of its own flaws, it remains of the utmost importance to fact check everything through official channels and scientific institutions, to prevent misinformation crisis and despair.
The question of whether the human Y-chromosome is vanishing in the future is a topic of scientific debate. The Y-chromosome, one of the two sex chromosomes in humans, plays a crucial role in determining male characteristics and fertility. However, concerns have been raised about its long-term viability due to its unique genetic properties and evolutionary history. One of the reasons for speculation about the vanishing of the human Y-chromosome is its size and genetic content compared to the X-chromosome. Unlike the X-chromosome, which undergoes genetic recombination during meiosis, the Y-chromosome has minimal opportunities for recombination, making it vulnerable to the accumulation of mutations and loss of genetic material. Studies have documented the degeneration of the Y-chromosome throughout evolution. These studies have revealed a pattern of gene loss, resulting in a reduction in the size and functional capacity of the Y-chromosome. While the Y-chromosome once harbored genes involved in various biological processes, many of these genes have been rendered non-functional over millions of years of evolution. Despite concerns about its diminishing size, the human Y-chromosome has persisted through millennia of genetic change. Researchers have identified mechanisms that help maintain the integrity of the Y-chromosome, including gene conversion, allowing the Y-chromosome to repair damaged DNA using homologous sequences on the X-chromosome. Recent advancements in research have provided new insights into the dynamics of Y-chromosome evolution. Studies have shown that while the Y-chromosome continues to undergo changes, it also exhibits remarkable stability in certain regions that are essential for male fertility. Moreover, the Y-chromosome is not expected to vanish in the future. Though it may continue to lose genes, those that determine maleness and fertility are likely to be preserved through evolutionary mechanisms. While concerns about the vanishing of the Y-chromosome are not unfounded, current evidence suggests that it’s unlikely to disappear. The Y-chromosome’s unique properties and adaptations have allowed it to persist through millennia of genetic change, ensuring its continued importance in determining male characteristics and fertility in humans. Ongoing research into the dynamics of Y-chromosome evolution will further elucidate its role in human biology.
DeepAI. (2024, 02 27). AI Chat. DeepAI. https://deepai.org/chat~Arney, K. (2023, March 23). Why Y bye-bye? Is the Y chromosome disappearing and will men really go extinct? — Genetics Unzipped. Retrieved March 19, 2024, from https://geneticsunzipped.com/transcripts/2023/03/23/bye-bye-y
Griffin D. K. (2012). Is the Y chromosome disappearing?–both sides of the argument. Chromosome research : an international journal on the molecular, supramolecular and evolutionary aspects of chromosome biology, 20(1), 35-45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10577-011-9252-1
Ricchio, J., Uno, F., & Carvalho, A. B. (2021). New Genes in the Drosophila Y Chromosome: Lessons from D. willistoni. Genes, 12(11), 1815. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes12111815
Sun, S., & Heitman, J. (2012). Should Y stay or should Y go: the evolution of non-recombining sex chromosomes. BioEssays : news and reviews in molecular, cellular and developmental biology, 34(11), 938-942. https://doi.org/10.1002/bies.201200064
Trombetta, B., & Cruciani, F. (2017). Y chromosome palindromes and gene conversion. Human genetics, 136(5), 605-619. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-017-1777-8
